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Interviewer: For most people darkness seems inherently dangerous, yet you show how the connection between light and security is often a false promise.

Paul Bogard: Historically, that connection is really interesting. The state encouraged light, because officials believed they could control a well-lit city better. Louis XIV, the Sun King, decreed that candles should be hung in the streets. Banishing darkness was a means of demonstrating might. Consequently, as illumination was associated with the power of the state, oil-lamp smashing became a regular thing. There are historical reports that prove that for many Parisians public street lighting stood for tyranny. Nowadays the problem is different. We have so much light that we feel safe, which is misleading because we stop noticing what's going on around. So it turns out we have actually made life easier for the bad guys. Studies show that criminals prefer well-lit areas, just as we do. I spent a lot of time researching the problem. The minute you start talking about light pollution, or the importance of darkness, people's first response is, "Yeah, but we need light for safety and security." It touches a nerve. But my personal view is that we don't need so much light for safety and security. We use way more than necessary, and it isn't making anybody safer.

Interviewer: In the book, you argue that the loss of darkness leads to disturbed sleep patterns. Can you explain?

Paul Bogard: If our rooms are dark at night, our bodies pump out the hormone melatonin needed for healthy sleep. Artificial light in our homes impedes the release of the hormone, making us alert longer, so we get less sleep. Another hormone whose secretion is affected by lighting is cortisol. Chronic exposure to room light during usual hours of sleep unnaturally elevates cortisol levels, which has a detrimental effect on sleep. Interestingly, scientists also believe that disruption to sleep affects hormones controlling our metabolism. People suffering from sleep disturbance are more likely to put on weight. There's also an interesting discovery of cells in our retinas that are sensitive to changes in daylight and seasonal light. The wavelengths to which they are most responsive are the blue wavelengths produced by electronic devices. Consequently, people watching TV before going to sleep receive the message "Wake up!" instead of "Go to bed".

Interviewer: Paul, thanks for being here with us.

Text 2

Do you think a lottery win would make you happy forever? Before you place all your hopes and dreams on another ticket, here's something you should know. New research has found that people who had big wins on the lottery ended up no happier than those who had bought tickets but didn't win. One way of accounting for this is something researchers call the "hedonic treadmill". Studies have shown that lottery winners quickly get used to their new level of wealth, and after a while simply adjust back to their baseline level of happiness. It also seems that as long as you can afford to avoid the basic miseries of life, having loads of spare cash doesn't make you happier than having very little.

Another explanation is that our happiness depends on how we feel relative to other people. If you win the lottery, you may feel richer than your neighbours, and think that moving to a mansion in a new neighbourhood will make you happy, but then you look out of the window and realise that all your new neighbours live in even bigger mansions.

The findings also prove that wealth alone doesn't provide any guarantee of a contented life. What matters a lot more than a sizeable income is how people spend it. Giving money away often makes people much happier than lavishing it on themselves. If you can see your money making a difference in other people's lives, it will boost your spirits even if the amount you gave was quite small, say the researchers. And when people do spend money on themselves, they are a lot happier when they use it for experiences like travel or learning new things because life experiences give us more lasting pleasure than material things. Money is legitimately useful, the study concludes, but it can also distract us from what we really enjoy.

2.1. From Bogard's answer to the first question we learn that

A. he devised an innovative scale measuring the level of darkness.

B. his book includes a list of instruments necessary to observe the night sky.

C. people in cities used to be able to observe the Milky Way with the naked eye.

D. the task of measuring the darkness of the sky has not yet been undertaken.

2.2. Which of the following is stated in the interview as an opinion, not a fact?

A. Street lighting used to be treated as a means of showing power.

B. Damaging street lamps was a way of expressing discontent.

C. Criminals find street lighting advantageous.

D. Some decrease in street lighting would not compromise safety.

2.3. What does Bogard mention as a factor causing sleep deprivation?

A. high cortisol levels

B. increased production of melatonin

C. susceptibility to metabolic disorders

D. the sensitivity of the retina to certain hormones

2.4. The speaker uses the term "hedonic treadmill" to draw attention to the fact that

A. people derive the maximum amount of pleasure from accumulating wealth.

B. having a stroke of luck boosts people's satisfaction level only temporarily.

C. it is only natural to desire more material possessions than other people have.

D. seeking a problem-free life is a guarantee of happiness.

2.5. The research findings show that

A. people are more willing to share if they have high incomes.

B. supporting people in need has great potential for making donors happy.

C. people get more satisfaction from purchasing goods than from gathering new life experiences.

D. money makes the majority of people self-centred.

2.6. In his talk, the speaker

A. demonstrates contempt for the pursuit of affluence.

B. presents a statistical analysis of wealthy people's expenditure.

C. argues that money gives ultimate satisfaction in life.

D. discusses the relationship between wealth and happiness.