Umiejętności z podstawy programowej

Unity and diversity

Water6

• Life in an aqueous environment0 zadań
• Water polarity and intermolecular attraction14 zad.
• Water cohesion in organisms8 zad.
• Water adhesion and capillarity4 zad.
• Dissolved substances in biological fluids2 zad.
• Living in water versus air5 zad.

Nucleic acids10

• The hereditary material of cells3 zad.
• Parts of a nucleotide9 zad.
• Covalent links along nucleic acid strands1 zad.
• The nucleic acid alphabet0 zadań
• Building an RNA strand2 zad.
• Pairing and orientation in double-stranded DNA5 zad.
• Distinguishing RNA from DNA9 zad.
• Complementarity in copying and using genes4 zad.
• Information capacity of DNA sequences1 zad.
• A shared genetic code and common ancestry1 zad.

Cell structure11

• Cell theory as a predictive framework0 zadań
• Preparing and measuring microscope specimens8 zad.
• Choosing modern microscopy methods3 zad.
• Features shared by cellular organisms1 zad.
• Organization of a bacterial cell19 zad.
• Organization of a eukaryotic cell18 zad.
• Life functions within one cell4 zad.
• Comparing plant, fungal and animal cells11 zad.
• Exceptions to typical nuclear organization4 zad.
• Recognizing cells in micrographs0 zadań
• Drawing cells from electron images3 zad.

Diversity of organisms11

• Patterns of biological variation0 zadań
• Grouping species by visible traits1 zad.
• Using scientific species names4 zad.
• Fertility as a species criterion4 zad.
• Recognizing species during gradual divergence1 zad.
• Comparing chromosome counts1 zad.
• Reading karyograms and chromosome fusion evidence3 zad.
• Shared and variable regions within a species genome1 zad.
• Variation among eukaryotic genomes1 zad.
• Investigating genome size in databases2 zad.
• Applications of whole-genome sequencing1 zad.

Evolution and speciation7

• Heritable change in populations1 zad.
• Molecular evidence of evolutionary relationships4 zad.
• Selective breeding as evidence of evolution5 zad.
• Homology as evidence of shared ancestry5 zad.
• Independent origins of similar adaptations9 zad.
• Speciation versus change within a lineage0 zadań
• Isolation and divergent selection4 zad.

Conservation of biodiversity8

• Levels of biological diversity1 zad.
• Estimating present and historical species richness1 zad.
• Human-driven extinction case studies2 zad.
• Human-driven loss of ecosystems1 zad.
• Assessing evidence of biodiversity decline6 zad.
• Pressures behind declining biodiversity5 zad.
• Combining conservation approaches7 zad.
• Setting conservation priorities with EDGE2 zad.

Form and function

Carbohydrates and lipids13

• Carbon bonding and molecular diversity1 zad.
• Joining monomers into biological polymers4 zad.
• Breaking polymers through hydrolysis3 zad.
• Simple sugars and their biological roles4 zad.
• Storing glucose in starch and glycogen7 zad.
• Cellulose fibres and plant support10 zad.
• Carbohydrate markers on cell surfaces0 zadań
• Lipids in polar and non-polar solvents1 zad.
• Assembling glycerol-based lipids12 zad.
• Fatty acid saturation and melting behaviour4 zad.
• Fat reserves and insulation6 zad.
• Amphipathic lipids and bilayer assembly6 zad.
• Steroid structure and membrane passage3 zad.

Proteins5

• Representing an amino acid4 zad.
• Making peptide bonds11 zad.
• Essential amino acids in the diet7 zad.
• Sequence diversity in polypeptides4 zad.
• Protein denaturation by heat or pH5 zad.

Membranes and membrane transport10

• The lipid framework of membranes5 zad.
• The membrane's hydrophobic barrier6 zad.
• Direct diffusion through a lipid bilayer7 zad.
• Protein positions within membranes4 zad.
• Osmosis through membranes and aquaporins3 zad.
• Selective diffusion through protein channels9 zad.
• ATP-powered membrane pumps8 zad.
• Determinants of membrane permeability6 zad.
• Membrane carbohydrates in recognition and adhesion3 zad.
• Representing the fluid mosaic membrane2 zad.

Organelles and compartmentalization3

• Recognizing functional cell organelles8 zad.
• Separating transcription from translation1 zad.
• Benefits of intracellular compartments1 zad.

Cell specialization6

• Embryonic gradients and differentiation8 zad.
• Self-renewal and differentiation of stem cells5 zad.
• Adult stem cells and their niches4 zad.
• Comparing stem cell developmental potential5 zad.
• Specialization and the range of human cell sizes1 zad.
• Cell dimensions and exchange limitations3 zad.

Gas exchange10

• Size-related challenges of exchanging gases0 zadań
• Features of effective respiratory surfaces2 zad.
• Sustaining gas concentration gradients3 zad.
• Alveolar lung organization6 zad.
• Pressure changes in breathing10 zad.
• Measuring respiratory volumes11 zad.
• Leaf structures supporting gas exchange1 zad.
• Mapping tissues in a leaf section1 zad.
• Water loss during leaf gas exchange5 zad.
• Estimating stomatal density1 zad.

Transport10

• Capillary structure and rapid exchange5 zad.
• Identifying arteries and veins in sections1 zad.
• Arterial walls and high-pressure flow3 zad.
• Determining heart rate from the pulse1 zad.
• Low-pressure return through veins5 zad.
• Coronary obstruction and epidemiological evidence8 zad.
• Cohesion and tension in the transpiration stream3 zad.
• Xylem vessels suited to water transport2 zad.
• Recognizing tissues in a dicot stem1 zad.
• Recognizing tissues in a dicot root0 zadań

Adaptation to environment8

• Describing an organism's habitat2 zad.
• Adapting to dune and mangrove conditions3 zad.
• Abiotic limits on species distributions15 zad.
• Investigating tolerance along a transect3 zad.
• Environmental requirements of coral reefs0 zadań
• Climate and the distribution of terrestrial biomes4 zad.
• Recognizing major biome climates7 zad.
• Survival in deserts and tropical forests3 zad.

Ecological niches13

• Describing an ecological role1 zad.
• Comparing oxygen requirements2 zad.
• Photosynthetic modes of nutrition0 zadań
• Animal feeding and internal digestion6 zad.
• Combining autotrophy and heterotrophy5 zad.
• Feeding by external decomposition6 zad.
• Energy sources among archaea0 zadań
• Inferring hominid diets from teeth0 zadań
• Plant defences and herbivore counter-adaptations1 zad.
• Predator and prey adaptations4 zad.
• Strategies for reaching light in forests3 zad.
• Potential and occupied ecological niches4 zad.
• Outcomes of overlapping resource use5 zad.

Interaction and interdependence

Enzymes and metabolism10

• Accelerating cellular reactions with enzymes3 zad.
• Enzyme control of metabolic networks0 zadań
• Building and breaking down biological molecules7 zad.
• The catalytic site of a folded enzyme0 zadań
• Shape changes during substrate binding2 zad.
• Molecular encounters in enzyme reactions0 zadań
• Specificity and loss of active-site shape1 zad.
• Conditions affecting enzyme reaction rates34 zad.
• Determining rates of enzyme activity3 zad.
• Enzymes and reaction energy profiles2 zad.

Cell respiration6

• ATP as a transferable cellular energy supply4 zad.
• Cellular work powered by ATP5 zad.
• Energy coupling in the ATP–ADP cycle2 zad.
• Respiration and energy from organic substrates10 zad.
• Human respiration with and without oxygen16 zad.
• Investigating rates of cellular respiration6 zad.

Photosynthesis8

• Capturing light energy in organic compounds2 zad.
• Photosynthetic conversion of carbon dioxide3 zad.
• The source of photosynthetic oxygen4 zad.
• Separating and identifying leaf pigments4 zad.
• Light absorption by photosynthetic pigments2 zad.
• Comparing absorption with photosynthetic action3 zad.
• Testing limiting factors in photosynthesis10 zad.
• Carbon enrichment experiments and plant growth2 zad.

Neural signalling7

• Neuron structure and electrical signalling5 zad.
• Ion gradients and the resting membrane voltage6 zad.
• Action potentials as travelling nerve signals2 zad.
• Factors determining nerve conduction speed10 zad.
• Directional communication at chemical synapses9 zad.
• Calcium-triggered neurotransmitter release8 zad.
• Producing an excitatory postsynaptic response5 zad.

Integration of body systems16

• Coordinating components of living systems0 zadań
• Integration across levels of body organization0 zadań
• Communication and transport between organs1 zad.
• The brain combining information6 zad.
• Spinal coordination of unconscious responses2 zad.
• Sensory pathways to the central nervous system3 zad.
• Motor pathways to skeletal muscles2 zad.
• The organization of a mixed nerve1 zad.
• The withdrawal reflex pathway4 zad.
• Cerebellar coordination of movement0 zadań
• Melatonin and daily sleep timing3 zad.
• Adrenaline preparing the body for activity3 zad.
• Hypothalamic and pituitary endocrine control1 zad.
• Sensory feedback adjusting cardiac output9 zad.
• Chemical feedback adjusting breathing8 zad.
• Nervous control along the digestive tract3 zad.

Defence against disease18

• Infectious agents and disease0 zadań
• Surface barriers against infection1 zad.
• Clot formation after tissue damage7 zad.
• Comparing innate and adaptive defences4 zad.
• Phagocyte movement and pathogen destruction2 zad.
• Lymphocyte cooperation in antibody production3 zad.
• Antigen recognition and antibody responses0 zadań
• Helper T cells activating specific B cells6 zad.
• Clonal expansion and plasma cell formation3 zad.
• Long-lived memory and immunity4 zad.
• Routes of HIV transmission1 zad.
• HIV damage to immune coordination2 zad.
• Selective effects of antibiotics8 zad.
• Selection for antibiotic-resistant bacteria5 zad.
• Pathogens crossing between animal species4 zad.
• Vaccination and immune preparation1 zad.
• Population immunity and transmission4 zad.
• Interpreting pandemic data0 zadań

Populations and communities18

• Defining an interacting population0 zadań
• Random samples and population estimates1 zad.
• Estimating abundance with quadrats3 zad.
• Estimating mobile populations by recapture3 zad.
• Resource limits and carrying capacity1 zad.
• Density-dependent population regulation3 zad.
• Interpreting population growth patterns5 zad.
• Testing a sigmoid growth model0 zadań
• Interactions among members of a species1 zad.
• Communities as interacting populations5 zad.
• Classifying interactions between species12 zad.
• Reciprocal benefits in mutualistic partnerships9 zad.
• Invasive species and resource advantage2 zad.
• Investigating competition experimentally0 zadań
• Testing species association with chi-squared1 zad.
• Density-linked predator–prey dynamics1 zad.
• Control from consumers or resources2 zad.
• Chemical suppression of competitors7 zad.

Transfers of energy and matter22

• Inputs and outputs of an ecosystem2 zad.
• Energy sources sustaining ecosystems5 zad.
• Energy transfer through feeding7 zad.
• Representing feeding networks6 zad.
• Organic energy supplies for decomposers8 zad.
• Autotrophic synthesis from inorganic materials2 zad.
• Light-powered and chemical-powered autotrophy4 zad.
• Organic carbon acquisition by heterotrophs3 zad.
• Respiration in producers and consumers2 zad.
• Assigning trophic positions14 zad.
• Drawing quantitative energy pyramids4 zad.
• Explaining energy losses between trophic levels10 zad.
• Respiratory heat loss from ecosystems10 zad.
• Energy constraints on food-chain length4 zad.
• Measuring biomass production by autotrophs2 zad.
• Biomass accumulation by heterotrophs4 zad.
• Mapping carbon recycling9 zad.
• Net carbon uptake and release by ecosystems3 zad.
• Carbon release through burning stored fuels4 zad.
• Seasonal and long-term atmospheric carbon patterns2 zad.
• Reciprocal gas supplies from photosynthesis and respiration1 zad.
• Decomposition and nutrient recycling9 zad.

Continuity and change

DNA replication5

• Copying DNA for growth and reproduction0 zadań
• Template-based semiconservative replication3 zad.
• Unwinding and copying DNA strands6 zad.
• Amplifying DNA and separating fragments14 zad.
• Interpreting DNA profiles8 zad.

Protein synthesis11

• Producing RNA from a DNA template5 zad.
• Base pairing during RNA synthesis2 zad.
• Preserving DNA while transcribing genes0 zadań
• Transcription as a gate for gene expression1 zad.
• Converting an mRNA message into a polypeptide2 zad.
• Cooperation of RNA and ribosomes in translation10 zad.
• Matching codons with anticodons7 zad.
• Triplets, degeneracy and the shared genetic code7 zad.
• Decoding mRNA with a codon table2 zad.
• Elongation of a polypeptide at the ribosome2 zad.
• Point mutations and altered protein structure5 zad.

Mutation and gene editing7

• Recognizing molecular changes in genes5 zad.
• Effects of single-base substitutions4 zad.
• Insertions, deletions and reading-frame disruption2 zad.
• Sources of mutational change6 zad.
• Mutation without directed adaptation1 zad.
• Somatic versus germline mutations7 zad.
• Mutation supplying new genetic variation1 zad.

Cell and nuclear division11

• New cells through division of existing cells3 zad.
• Dividing cytoplasm in plants and animals1 zad.
• Symmetric and asymmetric cytoplasmic division3 zad.
• Purposes of mitotic and meiotic nuclear division5 zad.
• Replicated chromosomes before nuclear division2 zad.
• Packaging and moving chromosomes8 zad.
• Sequence of events in mitosis6 zad.
• Recognizing mitotic stages in images2 zad.
• Halving chromosome number through meiosis12 zad.
• Meiotic segregation errors and trisomy2 zad.
• Genetic diversity generated by meiosis5 zad.

Water potential7

• Interactions during aqueous solvation0 zadań
• Comparing solution tonicity7 zad.
• Osmosis across a cell membrane6 zad.
• Measuring osmotic changes in plant tissue8 zad.
• Osmotic effects on cells without walls15 zad.
• Turgor and plasmolysis in walled cells4 zad.
• Protecting cells with isotonic fluids0 zadań

Reproduction12

• Comparing reproductive strategies3 zad.
• Meiosis and fertilization in life cycles3 zad.
• Gamete differences and reproductive investment0 zadań
• Human reproductive structures and functions2 zad.
• Hormonal coordination of the menstrual cycle6 zad.
• Gamete fusion and the first human division2 zad.
• Hormonal manipulation in IVF3 zad.
• The flowering plant sexual life cycle2 zad.
• Structures of an insect-pollinated flower2 zad.
• Promoting pollen transfer between plants1 zad.
• Preventing self-fertilization in plants4 zad.
• Seed movement and establishment0 zadań

Inheritance15

• Parental allele transmission through gametes4 zad.
• Designing and recording plant genetic crosses1 zad.
• Allele combinations and genotype notation14 zad.
• Genetic and environmental contributions to traits0 zadań
• Dominant and recessive phenotype patterns15 zad.
• Environment-responsive phenotypic plasticity1 zad.
• Recessive inheritance of phenylketonuria3 zad.
• Many population alleles but two individual copies3 zad.
• Predicting ABO blood-group inheritance3 zad.
• Intermediate and dual heterozygote phenotypes6 zad.
• Sex chromosomes and inherited traits6 zad.
• Predicting X-linked haemophilia inheritance6 zad.
• Inferring inheritance from pedigrees15 zad.
• Polygenes, environment and continuous variation4 zad.
• Summarizing continuous data with box plots4 zad.

Homeostasis6

• Maintaining a regulated internal environment2 zad.
• Corrective feedback around a set point2 zad.
• Insulin and glucagon in glucose regulation11 zad.
• Contrasting the physiology of diabetes types2 zad.
• The temperature-control feedback pathway8 zad.
• Human heat production and heat-loss responses10 zad.

Natural selection8

• Natural selection explaining evolutionary change6 zad.
• Generating the variation available to selection10 zad.
• Excess offspring and resource competition2 zad.
• Environmental conditions as selective pressures2 zad.
• Relative fitness and reproductive success28 zad.
• Inheritance as a requirement for selection response13 zad.
• Mate choice and sexually selected traits4 zad.
• Testing selection with controlled guppy studies3 zad.

Stability and change11

• Evidence of long-term ecosystem persistence0 zadań
• Conditions supporting ecosystem stability2 zad.
• Forest loss and an Amazon tipping point0 zadań
• Investigating stability with mesocosms7 zad.
• Disproportionate effects of keystone species6 zad.
• Comparing harvest and resource renewal0 zadań
• Environmental constraints on sustainable farming11 zad.
• Nutrient enrichment and oxygen depletion5 zad.
• Increasing pollutant concentrations along food chains9 zad.
• Persistent plastic debris in marine ecosystems3 zad.
• Restoring ecosystem processes through rewilding4 zad.

Climate change8

• Human increases in greenhouse gases14 zad.
• Feedbacks that amplify warming4 zad.
• Boreal forests switching from carbon sink to source0 zadań
• Polar ice loss and animal habitats2 zad.
• Ocean warming and nutrient supply1 zad.
• Shifting species ranges under warming2 zad.
• Warming and acidification threatening reefs7 zad.
• Restoring forests and wetlands to store carbon1 zad.

Skills in the study of biology

Tools and inquiry skills6

• Biological experimental methods3 zad.
• Digital tools for biological investigation1 zad.
• Biological calculations, statistics and graphs39 zad.
• Planning a biological investigation41 zad.
• Recording and interpreting biological data163 zad.
• Evaluating biological evidence and methods134 zad.