Umiejętności z podstawy programowej

Unity and diversity

Water8

• Life in an aqueous environment0 zadań
• Water polarity and intermolecular attraction7 zad.
• Water cohesion in organisms6 zad.
• Water adhesion and capillarity1 zad.
• Dissolved substances in biological fluids0 zadań
• Living in water versus air5 zad.
• Earth's supply and retention of water1 zad.
• Liquid water and habitable planets1 zad.

Nucleic acids15

• The hereditary material of cells3 zad.
• Parts of a nucleotide7 zad.
• Covalent links along nucleic acid strands2 zad.
• The nucleic acid alphabet0 zadań
• Building an RNA strand3 zad.
• Pairing and orientation in double-stranded DNA5 zad.
• Distinguishing RNA from DNA3 zad.
• Complementarity in copying and using genes4 zad.
• Information capacity of DNA sequences1 zad.
• A shared genetic code and common ancestry0 zadań
• Reading nucleic acid directionality1 zad.
• Base-pair geometry in the DNA helix2 zad.
• DNA packaging around histones10 zad.
• Interpreting the Hershey–Chase experiment3 zad.
• Interpreting Chargaff's base measurements4 zad.

Origins of cells9

• Prebiotic chemistry on early Earth1 zad.
• Cells and the boundary of life1 zad.
• Requirements for the first cells2 zad.
• Testing abiotic organic synthesis3 zad.
• Self-assembly of primitive compartments1 zad.
• The RNA-first hypothesis2 zad.
• Inferring a universal cellular ancestor1 zad.
• Dating the earliest cellular life0 zadań
• Hydrothermal settings for early life1 zad.

Cell structure14

• Cell theory as a predictive framework0 zadań
• Preparing and measuring microscope specimens7 zad.
• Choosing modern microscopy methods3 zad.
• Features shared by cellular organisms0 zadań
• Organization of a bacterial cell12 zad.
• Organization of a eukaryotic cell10 zad.
• Life functions within one cell2 zad.
• Comparing plant, fungal and animal cells6 zad.
• Exceptions to typical nuclear organization2 zad.
• Recognizing cells in micrographs0 zadań
• Drawing cells from electron images0 zadań
• Evidence for endosymbiotic organelles10 zad.
• Gene expression and cell specialization1 zad.
• Repeated origins of multicellular life1 zad.

Viruses6

• The shared core of viral structure7 zad.
• Comparing viral architectures2 zad.
• Phage replication through host lysis8 zad.
• Prophages and lysogenic infection5 zad.
• Evaluating multiple viral origins3 zad.
• Viral evolution and disease control3 zad.

Diversity of organisms15

• Patterns of biological variation0 zadań
• Grouping species by visible traits0 zadań
• Using scientific species names6 zad.
• Fertility as a species criterion2 zad.
• Recognizing species during gradual divergence1 zad.
• Comparing chromosome counts1 zad.
• Reading karyograms and chromosome fusion evidence2 zad.
• Shared and variable regions within a species genome4 zad.
• Variation among eukaryotic genomes0 zadań
• Investigating genome size in databases5 zad.
• Applications of whole-genome sequencing2 zad.
• Species boundaries without sexual reproduction2 zad.
• Chromosome compatibility and hybrid fertility1 zad.
• Constructing a local identification key0 zadań
• Detecting species through environmental DNA4 zad.

Classification and cladistics9

• Why biologists classify organisms0 zadań
• Limits of ranked taxonomic hierarchies4 zad.
• Predictive value of evolutionary classification3 zad.
• Identifying clades from shared ancestry6 zad.
• Estimating divergence with molecular clocks6 zad.
• Constructing trees from sequence comparisons14 zad.
• Reading nodes and branches in cladograms13 zad.
• Revising classifications with cladistic evidence2 zad.
• rRNA evidence for the three domains5 zad.

Evolution and speciation11

• Heritable change in populations1 zad.
• Molecular evidence of evolutionary relationships4 zad.
• Selective breeding as evidence of evolution4 zad.
• Homology as evidence of shared ancestry6 zad.
• Independent origins of similar adaptations6 zad.
• Speciation versus change within a lineage0 zadań
• Isolation and divergent selection7 zad.
• Speciation with or without geographical separation10 zad.
• Diversification into vacant niches3 zad.
• Maintaining reproductive barriers between species3 zad.
• Rapid plant speciation through chromosome change9 zad.

Conservation of biodiversity8

• Levels of biological diversity0 zadań
• Estimating present and historical species richness1 zad.
• Human-driven extinction case studies1 zad.
• Human-driven loss of ecosystems3 zad.
• Assessing evidence of biodiversity decline2 zad.
• Pressures behind declining biodiversity7 zad.
• Combining conservation approaches4 zad.
• Setting conservation priorities with EDGE2 zad.

Form and function

Carbohydrates and lipids13

• Carbon bonding and molecular diversity0 zadań
• Joining monomers into biological polymers0 zadań
• Breaking polymers through hydrolysis1 zad.
• Simple sugars and their biological roles4 zad.
• Storing glucose in starch and glycogen6 zad.
• Cellulose fibres and plant support10 zad.
• Carbohydrate markers on cell surfaces0 zadań
• Lipids in polar and non-polar solvents0 zadań
• Assembling glycerol-based lipids6 zad.
• Fatty acid saturation and melting behaviour3 zad.
• Fat reserves and insulation5 zad.
• Amphipathic lipids and bilayer assembly3 zad.
• Steroid structure and membrane passage4 zad.

Proteins12

• Representing an amino acid6 zad.
• Making peptide bonds6 zad.
• Essential amino acids in the diet3 zad.
• Sequence diversity in polypeptides0 zadań
• Protein denaturation by heat or pH2 zad.
• Side-chain chemistry in proteins2 zad.
• Amino acid sequence and protein folding3 zad.
• Helices and sheets in polypeptides5 zad.
• Interactions stabilizing tertiary structure9 zad.
• Positioning polar and non-polar residues3 zad.
• Multi-subunit and conjugated proteins7 zad.
• Protein shape suited to function1 zad.

Membranes and membrane transport17

• The lipid framework of membranes4 zad.
• The membrane's hydrophobic barrier3 zad.
• Direct diffusion through a lipid bilayer5 zad.
• Protein positions within membranes2 zad.
• Osmosis through membranes and aquaporins5 zad.
• Selective diffusion through protein channels11 zad.
• ATP-powered membrane pumps7 zad.
• Determinants of membrane permeability2 zad.
• Membrane carbohydrates in recognition and adhesion2 zad.
• Representing the fluid mosaic membrane2 zad.
• Lipid saturation and membrane flexibility3 zad.
• Cholesterol as a fluidity buffer6 zad.
• Membrane remodelling during vesicle transport4 zad.
• Opening neuronal channels with signals3 zad.
• Ion exchange by the sodium–potassium pump4 zad.
• Using sodium gradients to absorb glucose2 zad.
• Molecular attachment between tissue cells0 zadań

Organelles and compartmentalization9

• Recognizing functional cell organelles2 zad.
• Separating transcription from translation0 zadań
• Benefits of intracellular compartments2 zad.
• Mitochondrial design for aerobic ATP synthesis3 zad.
• Chloroplast design for photosynthetic reactions1 zad.
• Nuclear envelope organization and remodelling1 zad.
• Protein destinations and ribosome location5 zad.
• Processing proteins in the Golgi complex3 zad.
• Vesicle formation and intracellular delivery5 zad.

Cell specialization10

• Embryonic gradients and differentiation3 zad.
• Self-renewal and differentiation of stem cells3 zad.
• Adult stem cells and their niches2 zad.
• Comparing stem cell developmental potential8 zad.
• Specialization and the range of human cell sizes0 zadań
• Cell dimensions and exchange limitations0 zadań
• Increasing the surface available for exchange2 zad.
• Division of labour among alveolar cells7 zad.
• Comparing cardiac and skeletal muscle cells5 zad.
• Specialized structures of human gametes1 zad.

Gas exchange13

• Size-related challenges of exchanging gases0 zadań
• Features of effective respiratory surfaces3 zad.
• Sustaining gas concentration gradients4 zad.
• Alveolar lung organization5 zad.
• Pressure changes in breathing11 zad.
• Measuring respiratory volumes5 zad.
• Leaf structures supporting gas exchange2 zad.
• Mapping tissues in a leaf section1 zad.
• Water loss during leaf gas exchange14 zad.
• Estimating stomatal density0 zadań
• Oxygen binding in fetal and adult haemoglobin10 zad.
• Carbon dioxide and oxygen unloading5 zad.
• Interpreting haemoglobin dissociation curves7 zad.

Transport18

• Capillary structure and rapid exchange2 zad.
• Identifying arteries and veins in sections2 zad.
• Arterial walls and high-pressure flow4 zad.
• Determining heart rate from the pulse1 zad.
• Low-pressure return through veins3 zad.
• Coronary obstruction and epidemiological evidence9 zad.
• Cohesion and tension in the transpiration stream4 zad.
• Xylem vessels suited to water transport3 zad.
• Recognizing tissues in a dicot stem1 zad.
• Recognizing tissues in a dicot root1 zad.
• Capillary filtration and fluid return2 zad.
• Exchange between cells and interstitial fluid2 zad.
• Lymphatic recovery of tissue fluid0 zadań
• Single and double circulatory pathways3 zad.
• Heart structures and directed blood flow11 zad.
• Coordinating the cardiac cycle14 zad.
• Mineral uptake and positive root pressure3 zad.
• Phloem cells and source-to-sink transport14 zad.

Muscle and motility10

• Movement in motile and sessile organisms0 zadań
• Sarcomere shortening by filament sliding7 zad.
• Muscle recoil and opposing muscle action8 zad.
• Organization of a skeletal motor unit0 zadań
• Skeletons as muscle anchors and levers3 zad.
• How a synovial hip joint moves3 zad.
• Measuring joint mobility4 zad.
• Opposing actions of intercostal muscles1 zad.
• Biological benefits of locomotion0 zadań
• Marine mammal adaptations for swimming1 zad.

Adaptation to environment8

• Describing an organism's habitat0 zadań
• Adapting to dune and mangrove conditions0 zadań
• Abiotic limits on species distributions8 zad.
• Investigating tolerance along a transect3 zad.
• Environmental requirements of coral reefs2 zad.
• Climate and the distribution of terrestrial biomes3 zad.
• Recognizing major biome climates4 zad.
• Survival in deserts and tropical forests5 zad.

Ecological niches13

• Describing an ecological role3 zad.
• Comparing oxygen requirements1 zad.
• Photosynthetic modes of nutrition0 zadań
• Animal feeding and internal digestion6 zad.
• Combining autotrophy and heterotrophy2 zad.
• Feeding by external decomposition4 zad.
• Energy sources among archaea0 zadań
• Inferring hominid diets from teeth0 zadań
• Plant defences and herbivore counter-adaptations5 zad.
• Predator and prey adaptations1 zad.
• Strategies for reaching light in forests0 zadań
• Potential and occupied ecological niches5 zad.
• Outcomes of overlapping resource use4 zad.

Interaction and interdependence

Enzymes and metabolism17

• Accelerating cellular reactions with enzymes2 zad.
• Enzyme control of metabolic networks0 zadań
• Building and breaking down biological molecules4 zad.
• The catalytic site of a folded enzyme0 zadań
• Shape changes during substrate binding3 zad.
• Molecular encounters in enzyme reactions2 zad.
• Specificity and loss of active-site shape2 zad.
• Conditions affecting enzyme reaction rates22 zad.
• Determining rates of enzyme activity3 zad.
• Enzymes and reaction energy profiles4 zad.
• Enzyme reactions inside and outside cells1 zad.
• Metabolic heat production3 zad.
• Linear and cyclic metabolic sequences2 zad.
• Allosteric inhibition of enzyme activity9 zad.
• Competition for enzyme active sites14 zad.
• End-product control of biosynthesis4 zad.
• Irreversible inhibition and altered enzyme targets0 zadań

Cell respiration17

• ATP as a transferable cellular energy supply4 zad.
• Cellular work powered by ATP4 zad.
• Energy coupling in the ATP–ADP cycle0 zadań
• Respiration and energy from organic substrates3 zad.
• Human respiration with and without oxygen6 zad.
• Investigating rates of cellular respiration6 zad.
• Hydrogen transfer and NAD reduction3 zad.
• Energy transfers during glycolysis4 zad.
• Lactate formation and NAD regeneration2 zad.
• Yeast fermentation in food production3 zad.
• Preparing acetyl groups for the Krebs cycle4 zad.
• Carbon and electron transfers in the Krebs cycle6 zad.
• Reduced NAD feeding mitochondrial electron transport4 zad.
• Electron flow driving proton pumping5 zad.
• Mitochondrial ATP production by chemiosmosis6 zad.
• Oxygen accepting electrons at the respiratory chain4 zad.
• Comparing fuels for respiration2 zad.

Photosynthesis19

• Capturing light energy in organic compounds1 zad.
• Photosynthetic conversion of carbon dioxide0 zadań
• The source of photosynthetic oxygen1 zad.
• Separating and identifying leaf pigments7 zad.
• Light absorption by photosynthetic pigments0 zadań
• Comparing absorption with photosynthetic action7 zad.
• Testing limiting factors in photosynthesis8 zad.
• Carbon enrichment experiments and plant growth2 zad.
• Organization of a photosystem3 zad.
• Cooperation among photosystem pigments1 zad.
• Water splitting at photosystem II4 zad.
• Photophosphorylation across thylakoid membranes2 zad.
• Electron transfer from photosystem I to NADP2 zad.
• Locating the light-dependent reactions4 zad.
• Rubisco and initial carbon fixation7 zad.
• Reducing fixed carbon to triose phosphate6 zad.
• Restoring the Calvin cycle carbon acceptor6 zad.
• Making biomass from Calvin cycle products3 zad.
• Coupling light reactions with carbon fixation5 zad.

Chemical signalling14

• Ligand recognition by receptor proteins6 zad.
• Bacterial coordination by quorum sensing11 zad.
• Functional classes of animal signals2 zad.
• Chemical variety among signalling molecules0 zadań
• Short-range and long-range chemical communication3 zad.
• Receptor location and ligand solubility6 zad.
• From receptor binding to a cellular response4 zad.
• Ligand-gated channels changing membrane voltage2 zad.
• Receptors coupled to G proteins3 zad.
• Adrenaline signalling through cyclic AMP3 zad.
• Insulin receptors and glucose transporter delivery5 zad.
• Steroid receptors regulating transcription3 zad.
• Target-cell responses to reproductive hormones0 zadań
• Feedback within signalling pathways0 zadań

Neural signalling16

• Neuron structure and electrical signalling3 zad.
• Ion gradients and the resting membrane voltage3 zad.
• Action potentials as travelling nerve signals0 zadań
• Factors determining nerve conduction speed4 zad.
• Directional communication at chemical synapses6 zad.
• Calcium-triggered neurotransmitter release10 zad.
• Producing an excitatory postsynaptic response9 zad.
• Ion channel events in an action potential12 zad.
• Local currents and impulse propagation1 zad.
• Reading electrical recordings of neurons5 zad.
• Node-to-node conduction in myelinated axons3 zad.
• Chemical interference with synaptic transmission10 zad.
• Inhibitory signals and hyperpolarization2 zad.
• Combining excitatory and inhibitory inputs2 zad.
• Stimulus detection by pain receptors0 zadań
• Consciousness as an emergent property0 zadań

Integration of body systems23

• Coordinating components of living systems1 zad.
• Integration across levels of body organization0 zadań
• Communication and transport between organs0 zadań
• The brain combining information8 zad.
• Spinal coordination of unconscious responses1 zad.
• Sensory pathways to the central nervous system2 zad.
• Motor pathways to skeletal muscles2 zad.
• The organization of a mixed nerve1 zad.
• The withdrawal reflex pathway4 zad.
• Cerebellar coordination of movement2 zad.
• Melatonin and daily sleep timing8 zad.
• Adrenaline preparing the body for activity3 zad.
• Hypothalamic and pituitary endocrine control1 zad.
• Sensory feedback adjusting cardiac output5 zad.
• Chemical feedback adjusting breathing11 zad.
• Nervous control along the digestive tract3 zad.
• Recording and measuring seedling tropisms1 zad.
• Shoot growth towards lateral illumination4 zad.
• Chemical coordination of plant development1 zad.
• Polar auxin transport between plant cells7 zad.
• Auxin-driven wall loosening and elongation12 zad.
• Balancing root and shoot growth with hormones5 zad.
• Ethylene feedback during fruit ripening6 zad.

Defence against disease18

• Infectious agents and disease1 zad.
• Surface barriers against infection2 zad.
• Clot formation after tissue damage5 zad.
• Comparing innate and adaptive defences4 zad.
• Phagocyte movement and pathogen destruction4 zad.
• Lymphocyte cooperation in antibody production1 zad.
• Antigen recognition and antibody responses6 zad.
• Helper T cells activating specific B cells6 zad.
• Clonal expansion and plasma cell formation4 zad.
• Long-lived memory and immunity5 zad.
• Routes of HIV transmission1 zad.
• HIV damage to immune coordination2 zad.
• Selective effects of antibiotics9 zad.
• Selection for antibiotic-resistant bacteria10 zad.
• Pathogens crossing between animal species3 zad.
• Vaccination and immune preparation4 zad.
• Population immunity and transmission2 zad.
• Interpreting pandemic data0 zadań

Populations and communities18

• Defining an interacting population1 zad.
• Random samples and population estimates0 zadań
• Estimating abundance with quadrats0 zadań
• Estimating mobile populations by recapture4 zad.
• Resource limits and carrying capacity6 zad.
• Density-dependent population regulation4 zad.
• Interpreting population growth patterns8 zad.
• Testing a sigmoid growth model4 zad.
• Interactions among members of a species1 zad.
• Communities as interacting populations1 zad.
• Classifying interactions between species7 zad.
• Reciprocal benefits in mutualistic partnerships11 zad.
• Invasive species and resource advantage6 zad.
• Investigating competition experimentally0 zadań
• Testing species association with chi-squared4 zad.
• Density-linked predator–prey dynamics5 zad.
• Control from consumers or resources6 zad.
• Chemical suppression of competitors4 zad.

Transfers of energy and matter22

• Inputs and outputs of an ecosystem1 zad.
• Energy sources sustaining ecosystems3 zad.
• Energy transfer through feeding6 zad.
• Representing feeding networks4 zad.
• Organic energy supplies for decomposers4 zad.
• Autotrophic synthesis from inorganic materials1 zad.
• Light-powered and chemical-powered autotrophy2 zad.
• Organic carbon acquisition by heterotrophs4 zad.
• Respiration in producers and consumers2 zad.
• Assigning trophic positions15 zad.
• Drawing quantitative energy pyramids3 zad.
• Explaining energy losses between trophic levels1 zad.
• Respiratory heat loss from ecosystems5 zad.
• Energy constraints on food-chain length2 zad.
• Measuring biomass production by autotrophs4 zad.
• Biomass accumulation by heterotrophs4 zad.
• Mapping carbon recycling5 zad.
• Net carbon uptake and release by ecosystems3 zad.
• Carbon release through burning stored fuels2 zad.
• Seasonal and long-term atmospheric carbon patterns2 zad.
• Reciprocal gas supplies from photosynthesis and respiration1 zad.
• Decomposition and nutrient recycling8 zad.

Continuity and change

DNA replication9

• Copying DNA for growth and reproduction1 zad.
• Template-based semiconservative replication3 zad.
• Unwinding and copying DNA strands1 zad.
• Amplifying DNA and separating fragments26 zad.
• Interpreting DNA profiles9 zad.
• The direction of DNA strand extension1 zad.
• Continuous and fragmentary DNA replication3 zad.
• Coordinating bacterial replication enzymes8 zad.
• Correcting mismatches during DNA synthesis2 zad.

Protein synthesis19

• Producing RNA from a DNA template4 zad.
• Base pairing during RNA synthesis4 zad.
• Preserving DNA while transcribing genes0 zadań
• Transcription as a gate for gene expression0 zadań
• Converting an mRNA message into a polypeptide0 zadań
• Cooperation of RNA and ribosomes in translation5 zad.
• Matching codons with anticodons8 zad.
• Triplets, degeneracy and the shared genetic code7 zad.
• Decoding mRNA with a codon table3 zad.
• Elongation of a polypeptide at the ribosome0 zadań
• Point mutations and altered protein structure2 zad.
• Strand direction in transcription and translation7 zad.
• Promoters and the start of transcription3 zad.
• Functions of DNA that does not encode proteins2 zad.
• Processing a eukaryotic RNA transcript7 zad.
• Multiple protein variants through RNA splicing0 zadań
• Starting translation and using ribosomal sites9 zad.
• Maturation of newly synthesized polypeptides1 zad.
• Protein turnover and amino acid reuse4 zad.

Mutation and gene editing10

• Recognizing molecular changes in genes7 zad.
• Effects of single-base substitutions5 zad.
• Insertions, deletions and reading-frame disruption2 zad.
• Sources of mutational change4 zad.
• Mutation without directed adaptation0 zadań
• Somatic versus germline mutations0 zadań
• Mutation supplying new genetic variation2 zad.
• Inferring gene function by knockout5 zad.
• Targeted editing with CRISPR–Cas95 zad.
• Explaining conserved gene sequences0 zadań

Cell and nuclear division17

• New cells through division of existing cells2 zad.
• Dividing cytoplasm in plants and animals2 zad.
• Symmetric and asymmetric cytoplasmic division1 zad.
• Purposes of mitotic and meiotic nuclear division6 zad.
• Replicated chromosomes before nuclear division3 zad.
• Packaging and moving chromosomes2 zad.
• Sequence of events in mitosis3 zad.
• Recognizing mitotic stages in images0 zadań
• Halving chromosome number through meiosis9 zad.
• Meiotic segregation errors and trisomy4 zad.
• Genetic diversity generated by meiosis11 zad.
• Cell multiplication in development and repair1 zad.
• Progression through the cell cycle2 zad.
• Biosynthesis and organelle growth in interphase1 zad.
• Cyclin thresholds and cell-cycle checkpoints1 zad.
• Mutations disrupting cell-cycle regulation3 zad.
• Tumour behaviour and the mitotic index5 zad.

Gene expression11

• From gene information to phenotype2 zad.
• DNA-binding proteins controlling transcription2 zad.
• mRNA lifespan and protein output2 zad.
• Differentiation without changing DNA sequence0 zadań
• Comparing a cell's genome, transcripts and proteins2 zad.
• Methylation marks and transcriptional regulation5 zad.
• Inheritance of epigenetic states0 zadań
• Environmental modification of epigenetic marks2 zad.
• Incomplete resetting of gamete epigenetic marks2 zad.
• Twin studies of environmental gene regulation2 zad.
• External signals switching gene activity0 zadań

Water potential11

• Interactions during aqueous solvation0 zadań
• Comparing solution tonicity3 zad.
• Osmosis across a cell membrane5 zad.
• Measuring osmotic changes in plant tissue3 zad.
• Osmotic effects on cells without walls9 zad.
• Turgor and plasmolysis in walled cells4 zad.
• Protecting cells with isotonic fluids0 zadań
• Interpreting water potential values0 zadań
• Predicting flow from water potential differences3 zad.
• Combining pressure and solute potentials9 zad.
• Water potential changes in plant tissues6 zad.

Reproduction20

• Comparing reproductive strategies2 zad.
• Meiosis and fertilization in life cycles1 zad.
• Gamete differences and reproductive investment0 zadań
• Human reproductive structures and functions0 zadań
• Hormonal coordination of the menstrual cycle5 zad.
• Gamete fusion and the first human division3 zad.
• Hormonal manipulation in IVF1 zad.
• The flowering plant sexual life cycle4 zad.
• Structures of an insect-pollinated flower5 zad.
• Promoting pollen transfer between plants3 zad.
• Preventing self-fertilization in plants4 zad.
• Seed movement and establishment3 zad.
• Endocrine initiation of puberty2 zad.
• Comparing sperm and egg formation5 zad.
• Sperm penetration and the block to polyspermy5 zad.
• Blastocyst formation and uterine implantation0 zadań
• Detecting pregnancy through hCG2 zad.
• Placental exchange supporting fetal development1 zad.
• Hormonal maintenance of pregnancy and labour3 zad.
• Confounding in studies of hormone therapy0 zadań

Inheritance21

• Parental allele transmission through gametes0 zadań
• Designing and recording plant genetic crosses0 zadań
• Allele combinations and genotype notation6 zad.
• Genetic and environmental contributions to traits2 zad.
• Dominant and recessive phenotype patterns7 zad.
• Environment-responsive phenotypic plasticity3 zad.
• Recessive inheritance of phenylketonuria3 zad.
• Many population alleles but two individual copies0 zadań
• Predicting ABO blood-group inheritance4 zad.
• Intermediate and dual heterozygote phenotypes5 zad.
• Sex chromosomes and inherited traits7 zad.
• Predicting X-linked haemophilia inheritance4 zad.
• Inferring inheritance from pedigrees8 zad.
• Polygenes, environment and continuous variation6 zad.
• Summarizing continuous data with box plots2 zad.
• Meiosis and assortment of unlinked loci2 zad.
• Predicting outcomes of dihybrid crosses11 zad.
• Exploring gene locations and protein products1 zad.
• Linked alleles on homologous chromosomes7 zad.
• Identifying recombinant offspring5 zad.
• Testing dihybrid ratios statistically3 zad.

Homeostasis11

• Maintaining a regulated internal environment0 zadań
• Corrective feedback around a set point2 zad.
• Insulin and glucagon in glucose regulation11 zad.
• Contrasting the physiology of diabetes types2 zad.
• The temperature-control feedback pathway4 zad.
• Human heat production and heat-loss responses10 zad.
• Kidneys in waste removal and water balance1 zad.
• Filtration and selective proximal reabsorption8 zad.
• The loop of Henle and the medullary gradient7 zad.
• ADH control of collecting-duct water recovery17 zad.
• Redistributing blood during different activities0 zadań

Natural selection15

• Natural selection explaining evolutionary change2 zad.
• Generating the variation available to selection6 zad.
• Excess offspring and resource competition1 zad.
• Environmental conditions as selective pressures1 zad.
• Relative fitness and reproductive success20 zad.
• Inheritance as a requirement for selection response8 zad.
• Mate choice and sexually selected traits2 zad.
• Testing selection with controlled guppy studies4 zad.
• Defining a population's gene pool2 zad.
• Comparing allele frequencies across populations0 zadań
• Selection changing allele frequencies5 zad.
• Directional, stabilizing and disruptive selection8 zad.
• Calculating Hardy–Weinberg expectations4 zad.
• Conditions for Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium5 zad.
• Breeding deliberately for chosen traits2 zad.

Stability and change15

• Evidence of long-term ecosystem persistence0 zadań
• Conditions supporting ecosystem stability3 zad.
• Forest loss and an Amazon tipping point1 zad.
• Investigating stability with mesocosms6 zad.
• Disproportionate effects of keystone species3 zad.
• Comparing harvest and resource renewal8 zad.
• Environmental constraints on sustainable farming9 zad.
• Nutrient enrichment and oxygen depletion11 zad.
• Increasing pollutant concentrations along food chains10 zad.
• Persistent plastic debris in marine ecosystems1 zad.
• Restoring ecosystem processes through rewilding3 zad.
• Drivers of ecological succession3 zad.
• Trends during primary succession5 zad.
• Repeating sequences of ecological communities0 zadań
• Climax vegetation and interrupted succession2 zad.

Climate change12

• Human increases in greenhouse gases15 zad.
• Feedbacks that amplify warming4 zad.
• Boreal forests switching from carbon sink to source0 zadań
• Polar ice loss and animal habitats1 zad.
• Ocean warming and nutrient supply3 zad.
• Shifting species ranges under warming3 zad.
• Warming and acidification threatening reefs4 zad.
• Restoring forests and wetlands to store carbon2 zad.
• Environmental cues and seasonal biological timing1 zad.
• Climate-driven mismatches between interacting species0 zadań
• More insect generations in warmer years0 zadań
• Climate change altering selective advantages1 zad.

Skills in the study of biology

Tools and inquiry skills6

• Biological experimental methods10 zad.
• Digital tools for biological investigation7 zad.
• Biological calculations, statistics and graphs44 zad.
• Planning a biological investigation50 zad.
• Recording and interpreting biological data175 zad.
• Evaluating biological evidence and methods142 zad.