Umiejętności z podstawy programowej

Structure 1. Models of the particulate nature of matter

Introduction to the particulate nature of matter3

• Elements, compounds and mixtures13 zad.
• Kinetic molecular theory and states of matter3 zad.
• Temperature and kinetic energy of particles2 zad.

The nuclear atom3

• Nuclear symbols and subatomic particles7 zad.
• Isotopes and relative atomic mass5 zad.
• Mass spectra of elements3 zad.

Electron configurations7

• Emission spectra and the electromagnetic spectrum1 zad.
• Hydrogen line spectrum and energy levels3 zad.
• Main energy levels and electron capacity2 zad.
• Sublevels and the shapes of s and p orbitals3 zad.
• Electron configurations of atoms and ions9 zad.
• Ionization energy from the convergence limit4 zad.
• Successive ionization energies3 zad.

Counting particles by mass: The mole6

• The mole and the Avogadro constant6 zad.
• Relative atomic mass and relative formula mass0 zadań
• Molar mass and mole calculations10 zad.
• Empirical and molecular formulas12 zad.
• Molar concentration of solutions24 zad.
• Avogadro's law and molar volume of gases7 zad.

Ideal gases4

• Assumptions of the ideal gas model0 zadań
• Real gases and deviation from ideality3 zad.
• Gas laws: pressure, volume and temperature2 zad.
• Ideal gas equation and combined gas law8 zad.

Structure 2. Models of bonding and structure

The ionic model3

• Cations, anions and ion charges2 zad.
• Ionic bonding and formulas of ionic compounds8 zad.
• Ionic lattices and their properties8 zad.

The covalent model16

• Covalent bonds and Lewis formulas7 zad.
• Bond order, bond length and bond strength1 zad.
• Coordination bonds3 zad.
• VSEPR theory and molecular shapes9 zad.
• Bond polarity and electronegativity2 zad.
• Molecular polarity and dipole moments5 zad.
• Covalent network solids and carbon allotropes5 zad.
• Types of intermolecular forces8 zad.
• Intermolecular forces and physical properties4 zad.
• Chromatography and Rf values9 zad.
• Resonance structures and delocalization3 zad.
• Structure and stability of benzene5 zad.
• Expanded octets and shapes with five or six domains5 zad.
• Formal charge and preferred Lewis formulas5 zad.
• Sigma and pi bonds4 zad.
• Hybridization of atomic orbitals7 zad.

The metallic model3

• Metallic bonding and properties of metals5 zad.
• Strength of metallic bonding and melting points1 zad.
• Metallic bonding in transition elements0 zadań

From models to materials6

• The bonding triangle: ionic, covalent, metallic0 zadań
• Position in the bonding triangle5 zad.
• Alloys and their properties0 zadań
• Polymers and properties of plastics2 zad.
• Addition polymers and repeating units4 zad.
• Condensation polymers: polyesters and polyamides2 zad.

Structure 3. Classification of matter

The periodic table: Classification of elements10

• Periods, groups and blocks of the periodic table4 zad.
• Periodic table position and electron configuration2 zad.
• Periodic trends in atomic properties12 zad.
• Group 1 and group 17 reactivity trends4 zad.
• Basic, amphoteric and acidic oxides4 zad.
• Assigning oxidation states14 zad.
• Discontinuities in first ionization energy0 zadań
• Characteristic properties of transition elements3 zad.
• Electron configurations of transition element ions3 zad.
• Colour of transition metal complexes18 zad.

Functional groups: Classification of organic compounds12

• Molecular, structural and skeletal formulas1 zad.
• Functional groups in organic compounds9 zad.
• Homologous series and general formulas2 zad.
• Trends in boiling points of a homologous series4 zad.
• IUPAC naming of organic compounds5 zad.
• Structural isomers7 zad.
• Stereoisomers: cis-trans and optical isomerism11 zad.
• Mass spectrometry fragmentation patterns4 zad.
• Infrared spectra and functional groups8 zad.
• Proton NMR: environments, shifts and integration8 zad.
• Proton NMR splitting patterns3 zad.
• Structure determination from combined spectra2 zad.

Reactivity 1. What drives chemical reactions?

Measuring enthalpy changes4

• Heat, temperature and energy conservation1 zad.
• Endothermic and exothermic reactions8 zad.
• Energy profiles for exothermic and endothermic reactions6 zad.
• Calorimetry: Q = mcΔT and enthalpy change12 zad.

Energy cycles in reactions5

• Enthalpy change from bond enthalpies9 zad.
• Hess's law3 zad.
• Standard enthalpies of formation and combustion5 zad.
• Hess's law with formation and combustion data6 zad.
• Born-Haber cycles and lattice enthalpy5 zad.

Energy from fuels5

• Complete combustion equations4 zad.
• Incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons1 zad.
• Fossil fuels and CO2 emissions3 zad.
• Biofuels and renewable energy5 zad.
• Hydrogen and methanol fuel cells2 zad.

Entropy and spontaneity4

• Entropy and standard entropy change7 zad.
• Gibbs energy change calculations3 zad.
• Spontaneity and the sign of ΔG5 zad.
• ΔG, reaction quotient and approach to equilibrium2 zad.

Reactivity 2. How much, how fast and how far?

How much? The amount of chemical change5

• Writing and balancing chemical equations8 zad.
• Reacting masses, volumes and concentrations13 zad.
• Limiting reactant and theoretical yield12 zad.
• Percentage yield calculations2 zad.
• Atom economy5 zad.

How fast? The rate of chemical change13

• Measuring and calculating rate of reaction8 zad.
• Collision theory2 zad.
• Factors affecting the rate of reaction10 zad.
• Activation energy and Maxwell-Boltzmann curves9 zad.
• Catalysts and alternative reaction pathways5 zad.
• Reaction mechanisms and the rate-determining step4 zad.
• Energy profiles of multi-step reactions3 zad.
• Molecularity of elementary steps1 zad.
• Deducing rate equations from experimental data4 zad.
• Order of reaction and rate graphs7 zad.
• Rate constant and its units3 zad.
• Arrhenius equation and temperature dependence of k3 zad.
• Activation energy and Arrhenius factor from data2 zad.

How far? The extent of chemical change7

• Dynamic equilibrium5 zad.
• Equilibrium law and the expression for K9 zad.
• Magnitude and temperature dependence of K5 zad.
• Le Chatelier's principle15 zad.
• Reaction quotient Q and direction of change4 zad.
• Equilibrium calculations with ICE tables6 zad.
• Equilibrium constant from Gibbs energy4 zad.

Reactivity 3. What are the mechanisms of chemical change?

Proton transfer reactions17

• Brønsted-Lowry acids and bases5 zad.
• Conjugate acid-base pairs3 zad.
• Amphiprotic species1 zad.
• pH scale and hydrogen ion concentration5 zad.
• Ionic product of water, Kw4 zad.
• Strong and weak acids and bases6 zad.
• Neutralization reactions and salts4 zad.
• pH curves for strong acid and strong base1 zad.
• pOH and interconverting pH, pOH, [H+] and [OH-]2 zad.
• Ka, Kb, pKa and pKb as measures of strength7 zad.
• Weak acid and base calculations with Ka and Kb1 zad.
• Salt hydrolysis and pH of salt solutions4 zad.
• pH curves for weak and strong acid-base combinations5 zad.
• Acid-base indicators and their colour change3 zad.
• Choosing an indicator for a titration4 zad.
• Buffer solutions and how they work2 zad.
• Buffer pH calculations4 zad.

Electron transfer reactions16

• Oxidation, reduction and redox agents5 zad.
• Half-equations and balancing redox equations9 zad.
• Reactivity series of metals and halogens6 zad.
• Reactions of metals with acids2 zad.
• Anode, cathode and electrode polarity3 zad.
• Primary (voltaic) cells4 zad.
• Secondary (rechargeable) cells7 zad.
• Electrolysis of molten salts4 zad.
• Oxidation of alcohols6 zad.
• Reduction of carboxylic acids, aldehydes and ketones2 zad.
• Hydrogenation of alkenes and alkynes1 zad.
• Standard electrode potentials and the hydrogen electrode3 zad.
• Standard cell potential and spontaneity7 zad.
• Gibbs energy from cell potential2 zad.
• Electrolysis of aqueous solutions5 zad.
• Electroplating3 zad.

Electron sharing reactions3

• Radicals and unpaired electrons0 zadań
• Homolytic fission and the initiation step7 zad.
• Radical substitution of alkanes with halogens2 zad.

Electron-pair sharing reactions13

• Nucleophiles1 zad.
• Nucleophilic substitution of halogenoalkanes2 zad.
• Heterolytic fission and curly arrows3 zad.
• Electrophiles5 zad.
• Electrophilic addition reactions of alkenes5 zad.
• Lewis acids and bases3 zad.
• Coordination bonds in Lewis acid-base reactions2 zad.
• Complex ions, ligands and their charge6 zad.
• SN1 and SN2 nucleophilic substitution7 zad.
• Leaving groups and rates of nucleophilic substitution5 zad.
• Mechanism of electrophilic addition to alkenes2 zad.
• Markovnikov's rule and carbocation stability2 zad.
• Electrophilic substitution of benzene4 zad.

Skills in the study of chemistry

Tools and inquiry skills6

• Experimental techniques and apparatus33 zad.
• Technology, databases and modelling1 zad.
• Units, uncertainties and graphs28 zad.
• Exploring and designing investigations8 zad.
• Collecting and processing data6 zad.
• Concluding and evaluating21 zad.