Umiejętności z podstawy programowej

Structure 1. Models of the particulate nature of matter

Introduction to the particulate nature of matter3

• Elements, compounds and mixtures14 zad.
• Kinetic molecular theory and states of matter9 zad.
• Temperature and kinetic energy of particles4 zad.

The nuclear atom3

• Nuclear symbols and subatomic particles14 zad.
• Isotopes and relative atomic mass17 zad.
• Mass spectra of elements11 zad.

Electron configurations7

• Emission spectra and the electromagnetic spectrum8 zad.
• Hydrogen line spectrum and energy levels8 zad.
• Main energy levels and electron capacity5 zad.
• Sublevels and the shapes of s and p orbitals10 zad.
• Electron configurations of atoms and ions27 zad.
• Ionization energy from the convergence limit13 zad.
• Successive ionization energies19 zad.

Counting particles by mass: The mole6

• The mole and the Avogadro constant10 zad.
• Relative atomic mass and relative formula mass4 zad.
• Molar mass and mole calculations39 zad.
• Empirical and molecular formulas29 zad.
• Molar concentration of solutions42 zad.
• Avogadro's law and molar volume of gases11 zad.

Ideal gases4

• Assumptions of the ideal gas model1 zad.
• Real gases and deviation from ideality6 zad.
• Gas laws: pressure, volume and temperature7 zad.
• Ideal gas equation and combined gas law24 zad.

Structure 2. Models of bonding and structure

The ionic model3

• Cations, anions and ion charges7 zad.
• Ionic bonding and formulas of ionic compounds16 zad.
• Ionic lattices and their properties23 zad.

The covalent model16

• Covalent bonds and Lewis formulas21 zad.
• Bond order, bond length and bond strength10 zad.
• Coordination bonds5 zad.
• VSEPR theory and molecular shapes31 zad.
• Bond polarity and electronegativity4 zad.
• Molecular polarity and dipole moments13 zad.
• Covalent network solids and carbon allotropes15 zad.
• Types of intermolecular forces30 zad.
• Intermolecular forces and physical properties21 zad.
• Chromatography and Rf values17 zad.
• Resonance structures and delocalization16 zad.
• Structure and stability of benzene9 zad.
• Expanded octets and shapes with five or six domains21 zad.
• Formal charge and preferred Lewis formulas18 zad.
• Sigma and pi bonds14 zad.
• Hybridization of atomic orbitals25 zad.

The metallic model3

• Metallic bonding and properties of metals18 zad.
• Strength of metallic bonding and melting points5 zad.
• Metallic bonding in transition elements0 zadań

From models to materials6

• The bonding triangle: ionic, covalent, metallic2 zad.
• Position in the bonding triangle9 zad.
• Alloys and their properties6 zad.
• Polymers and properties of plastics3 zad.
• Addition polymers and repeating units11 zad.
• Condensation polymers: polyesters and polyamides17 zad.

Structure 3. Classification of matter

The periodic table: Classification of elements10

• Periods, groups and blocks of the periodic table10 zad.
• Periodic table position and electron configuration11 zad.
• Periodic trends in atomic properties33 zad.
• Group 1 and group 17 reactivity trends12 zad.
• Basic, amphoteric and acidic oxides21 zad.
• Assigning oxidation states30 zad.
• Discontinuities in first ionization energy10 zad.
• Characteristic properties of transition elements18 zad.
• Electron configurations of transition element ions12 zad.
• Colour of transition metal complexes37 zad.

Functional groups: Classification of organic compounds12

• Molecular, structural and skeletal formulas1 zad.
• Functional groups in organic compounds46 zad.
• Homologous series and general formulas18 zad.
• Trends in boiling points of a homologous series5 zad.
• IUPAC naming of organic compounds17 zad.
• Structural isomers13 zad.
• Stereoisomers: cis-trans and optical isomerism36 zad.
• Mass spectrometry fragmentation patterns17 zad.
• Infrared spectra and functional groups27 zad.
• Proton NMR: environments, shifts and integration35 zad.
• Proton NMR splitting patterns14 zad.
• Structure determination from combined spectra6 zad.

Reactivity 1. What drives chemical reactions?

Measuring enthalpy changes4

• Heat, temperature and energy conservation2 zad.
• Endothermic and exothermic reactions18 zad.
• Energy profiles for exothermic and endothermic reactions13 zad.
• Calorimetry: Q = mcΔT and enthalpy change27 zad.

Energy cycles in reactions5

• Enthalpy change from bond enthalpies20 zad.
• Hess's law13 zad.
• Standard enthalpies of formation and combustion12 zad.
• Hess's law with formation and combustion data21 zad.
• Born-Haber cycles and lattice enthalpy11 zad.

Energy from fuels5

• Complete combustion equations9 zad.
• Incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons4 zad.
• Fossil fuels and CO2 emissions18 zad.
• Biofuels and renewable energy9 zad.
• Hydrogen and methanol fuel cells10 zad.

Entropy and spontaneity4

• Entropy and standard entropy change23 zad.
• Gibbs energy change calculations19 zad.
• Spontaneity and the sign of ΔG19 zad.
• ΔG, reaction quotient and approach to equilibrium7 zad.

Reactivity 2. How much, how fast and how far?

How much? The amount of chemical change5

• Writing and balancing chemical equations18 zad.
• Reacting masses, volumes and concentrations47 zad.
• Limiting reactant and theoretical yield27 zad.
• Percentage yield calculations10 zad.
• Atom economy10 zad.

How fast? The rate of chemical change13

• Measuring and calculating rate of reaction26 zad.
• Collision theory11 zad.
• Factors affecting the rate of reaction27 zad.
• Activation energy and Maxwell-Boltzmann curves27 zad.
• Catalysts and alternative reaction pathways20 zad.
• Reaction mechanisms and the rate-determining step14 zad.
• Energy profiles of multi-step reactions9 zad.
• Molecularity of elementary steps1 zad.
• Deducing rate equations from experimental data18 zad.
• Order of reaction and rate graphs24 zad.
• Rate constant and its units13 zad.
• Arrhenius equation and temperature dependence of k17 zad.
• Activation energy and Arrhenius factor from data6 zad.

How far? The extent of chemical change7

• Dynamic equilibrium5 zad.
• Equilibrium law and the expression for K31 zad.
• Magnitude and temperature dependence of K12 zad.
• Le Chatelier's principle33 zad.
• Reaction quotient Q and direction of change9 zad.
• Equilibrium calculations with ICE tables12 zad.
• Equilibrium constant from Gibbs energy16 zad.

Reactivity 3. What are the mechanisms of chemical change?

Proton transfer reactions17

• Brønsted-Lowry acids and bases17 zad.
• Conjugate acid-base pairs12 zad.
• Amphiprotic species2 zad.
• pH scale and hydrogen ion concentration18 zad.
• Ionic product of water, Kw9 zad.
• Strong and weak acids and bases25 zad.
• Neutralization reactions and salts20 zad.
• pH curves for strong acid and strong base3 zad.
• pOH and interconverting pH, pOH, [H+] and [OH-]8 zad.
• Ka, Kb, pKa and pKb as measures of strength24 zad.
• Weak acid and base calculations with Ka and Kb10 zad.
• Salt hydrolysis and pH of salt solutions13 zad.
• pH curves for weak and strong acid-base combinations18 zad.
• Acid-base indicators and their colour change9 zad.
• Choosing an indicator for a titration9 zad.
• Buffer solutions and how they work15 zad.
• Buffer pH calculations9 zad.

Electron transfer reactions16

• Oxidation, reduction and redox agents23 zad.
• Half-equations and balancing redox equations26 zad.
• Reactivity series of metals and halogens13 zad.
• Reactions of metals with acids5 zad.
• Anode, cathode and electrode polarity26 zad.
• Primary (voltaic) cells22 zad.
• Secondary (rechargeable) cells11 zad.
• Electrolysis of molten salts17 zad.
• Oxidation of alcohols24 zad.
• Reduction of carboxylic acids, aldehydes and ketones6 zad.
• Hydrogenation of alkenes and alkynes3 zad.
• Standard electrode potentials and the hydrogen electrode7 zad.
• Standard cell potential and spontaneity24 zad.
• Gibbs energy from cell potential10 zad.
• Electrolysis of aqueous solutions14 zad.
• Electroplating5 zad.

Electron sharing reactions3

• Radicals and unpaired electrons1 zad.
• Homolytic fission and the initiation step15 zad.
• Radical substitution of alkanes with halogens7 zad.

Electron-pair sharing reactions13

• Nucleophiles3 zad.
• Nucleophilic substitution of halogenoalkanes11 zad.
• Heterolytic fission and curly arrows5 zad.
• Electrophiles9 zad.
• Electrophilic addition reactions of alkenes8 zad.
• Lewis acids and bases15 zad.
• Coordination bonds in Lewis acid-base reactions11 zad.
• Complex ions, ligands and their charge16 zad.
• SN1 and SN2 nucleophilic substitution29 zad.
• Leaving groups and rates of nucleophilic substitution8 zad.
• Mechanism of electrophilic addition to alkenes17 zad.
• Markovnikov's rule and carbocation stability13 zad.
• Electrophilic substitution of benzene12 zad.

Skills in the study of chemistry

Tools and inquiry skills6

• Experimental techniques and apparatus63 zad.
• Technology, databases and modelling1 zad.
• Units, uncertainties and graphs68 zad.
• Exploring and designing investigations16 zad.
• Collecting and processing data34 zad.
• Concluding and evaluating55 zad.